Indoor Air Cartoon Journal

Indoor Air Cartoon Journal, August 2024, Volume 7, #157

[Cite as: Fadeyi MO (2024). The impact of poorly refined fuel used in vehicles on indoor air quality and occupants’ health. Indoor Air Cartoon Journal, August 2024, Volume 7, #157.]

Fictional Case Story (Audio – available online) – Part 1

Fictional Case Story (Audio – available online) – Part 2

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The use of poorly refined fuel in vehicles was a significant concern for residents, primarily due to the immediate and noticeable damage it caused to their vehicles, reducing their lifespan and reliability. However, the implications of using such substandard fuel extended far beyond vehicular issues. Emissions from these fuels released a plethora of harmful pollutants into the air, leading to widespread but unrecognised public health problems. Residents unknowingly suffered from increased respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, along with frequent ear, nose, and throat irritations, and skin disorders. Additionally, prolonged exposure contributed to serious neurological effects, kidney damage, and heightened cancer risks. Despite the prevalence of these health issues, the connection to the use of poorly refined fuel remained largely unnoticed, leaving a critical environmental and health crisis unaddressed while attention remained focused solely on the tangible damage to vehicles. The realisation by a young woman with a background in chemical and environmental engineering of the potential link between poorly refined vehicle fuel and public health problems prompted her to lead efforts in raising awareness that could influence policy for healthier living. The journey of this woman is the subject of this short fiction story.

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Nine-year-old Adanma Edet lived with her parents and two teenage brothers in Malootu State of a developing country named Bayunga. Malootu, once a vibrant city, had fallen into ruin due to a severe socio-economic crisis that gripped the entire nation. This crisis was not just about poverty–it was about survival in the face of a government that had collapsed under the weight of corruption and mismanagement.

The country was enduring a brutal civil war, where the fighting was not only between warring factions but also between ordinary people, desperate to survive in a land where resources had become almost non-existent.

The war had destroyed the country’s infrastructure. Hospitals, schools, and markets were either bombed or looted. Food shortages were severe, and clean water was a rarity. Disease outbreaks were common, with no medicine or doctors available to treat the sick. The state where Adanma’s family lived was not spared. Armed groups roamed the area, extorting what little the citizens of the state had left, and using violence against those who resisted.

As the situation worsened, the family’s daily life turned into a nightmare. They lived in constant fear, never knowing when the next attack would come or if they would have enough to eat. Additionally, Adanma’s parents were particularly worried that Adanma’s older siblings, who were male, might be forcibly recruited into one of the armed groups.

The air was filled with the stench of burning buildings and the acrid smoke of gunfire, making it difficult to breathe. Adanma’s parents knew then that they had to leave, or risk losing their children to the horrors of war.

Faced with the very real threat of death–whether from violence, disease, or starvation–and forcibly having their children taken away from them, Adanma’s parents made the agonising decision to flee the only home they had ever known. They knew that the journey ahead would be fraught with dangers that no parent should ever expose their children to, but staying meant certain death.

With little more than the clothes on their backs and a few provisions, they set out on a perilous journey that would involve travelling across a sun-scorched desert, their only hope being the possibility of safety in a distant, developed country.

First, they had to embark on a dangerous trip to the northern side of their country, Bayunga, and cross the border there. With the help of the smugglers they were travelling with, they eventually arrived after two days of starting the trip. However, the border was heavily guarded because of the civil war, making escape out of the country a daunting and highly dangerous task. The family’s determination and ingenuity played crucial roles in their eventual departure.

To evade detection and the stringent border controls, Adanma’s parents employed a combination of strategic planning and the assistance of smugglers. They and their children began by blending in with the large population of displaced persons who were also attempting to flee. This strategy involved moving in small groups to avoid drawing attention. The family carefully avoided high-profile crossing points, choosing instead to use lesser-known routes that were less heavily patrolled.

They relied on the help of local guides, often referred to as “fixers,” who had intimate knowledge of the border area and could navigate the treacherous terrain while avoiding detection. These guides were well-versed in the patterns of border patrols and used their expertise to find openings in the security measures. The journey to the desert involved travelling at night to minimise the risk of being spotted by border guards.

In addition to their guides, the family relied on false documentation and bribes to facilitate their passage. Smugglers, knowing the desperation of people in such situations, offered services that included crossing the border through secret paths and hidden routes. Adanma’s parents had to make difficult choices, including paying fees and accepting the risk of exposure to dangerous conditions. They eventually crossed the border and left Bayunga.

Once they had successfully crossed the border of Bayunga, the desert journey began. The desert journey was a test of endurance and willpower. Adanma’s family, driven by desperation, embarked on a harrowing trek through the vast, arid expanse. The sun was a constant oppressor, scorching the earth and sapping their strength with every step. Water, their most precious resource, was rationed carefully, but despite their efforts, dehydration was a persistent threat. The sand beneath their feet seemed endless, and the mirages on the horizon only served to mock their suffering.

During the day, the unbearable heat made progress almost impossible. The family sought shelter in the scant shade provided by rocky outcrops or shallow caves. When night fell, they continued their journey, guided by the stars and the faint hope that they would survive to see another day. But the night was far from safe. The darkness concealed the treacherous terrain and hid the eyes of predators, both animal and human. On more than one occasion, they narrowly avoided encounters with desert bandits, who preyed on the vulnerable.

After close to two years of gruelling travel and crossing borders, they faced another perilous challenge: the sea crossing. The smugglers, ruthless and indifferent to their plight, extorted the last of the family’s savings. The boat they boarded was overcrowded and barely seaworthy. As they left the shore, the reality of their situation sank in–survival was not guaranteed.

The ocean, much like the desert, was unforgiving, and the waves were as merciless as the desert sun. Yet, with hearts heavy with fear and hope, they pressed on, driven by the dream of reaching a land where safety and opportunity awaited.

The boat ride was worse than anything they had endured in the desert. The smugglers packed the family into an overcrowded, rickety vessel, sending them out into a stormy sea with no concern for their lives. The boat was tossed about by the waves, and water began to seep in, threatening to capsize the small craft. Adanma clung to her father whenever the boat lurched violently, her mother holding tightly to her teenage siblings.

The fear was overwhelming, but there was no turning back. Behind them lay only death; ahead, the slim hope of survival. The fear proved to be true. Many people Adanma and her family left behind in her neighbourhood either died of hunger or were killed by bullet or bomb. The building they were living in was destroyed, killing people that were left there.

Miraculously, the family survived the crossing, arriving at the shores of a rich, developed country called Marfagal, battered, exhausted, and with nothing left but the will to survive. The difficult journey from their country to Marfagal took them 2 years 3 months. They were placed in a refugee camp, where they slowly began to rebuild their lives. The air in this new land was clean, free from the acrid smoke of war, and Adanma’s parents, though traumatised by their journey, were determined to give their children a future.

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Adanma’s new life in the refugee camp was a far cry from the life she had known before. By the time she and her family arrived in Marfagal, Adanma was almost 11 years and 7 months old. The camp, though a refuge from the chaos they had fled, was a world of its own, populated by families who had endured unimaginable horrors. It offered safety but also uncertainty, with every day presenting a struggle to regain a sense of normality.

Despite her age, Adanma was placed in a primary-level class, which was three years below where she should have been due to the disruptions in her education caused by their journey. She was placed in Primary 3 instead of Primary 6, where she should have been at that time if there had been no war. Her teenage brothers were similarly placed in secondary-level classes but three years behind their peers. The gaps in their education, a result of displacement and trauma, were significant, but Adanma’s parents were relieved that their children had the chance to learn at all.

The camp’s school, operated by the Ministry of Education of Marfagal, was a rudimentary setup, consisting of tents and makeshift classrooms. The teachers, often refugees themselves, did their best with the limited resources available–shared textbooks, stubby pencils, and precious sheets of paper.

Adanma faced the challenge of a new educational system and language with quiet determination. She absorbed what she could, copying down words and phrases with earnest effort. Her progress was slow, but she remained steadfast. The hope for a better future, the very future her parents had risked everything for, motivated her.

Adanma’s brothers, despite their own frustrations, supported her. They helped with her homework, explaining concepts she struggled with, and together they formed a small study group in their cramped living quarters. They understood that education was their pathway out of the camp, their key to a life beyond the barbed wire fences.

As time passed, Adanma began to make significant strides in her education. Her teachers, recognising her resilience and eagerness to learn, dedicated extra time to help her catch up. They provided her with books to read after school and simple assignments to build her confidence. Adanma immersed herself in these stories, finding solace and escape from the harsh realities of camp life.

Over the months and years, Adanma gradually closed the educational gap. Her parents, despite the enduring scars of their journey, watched with pride as their daughter thrived. In the barbed wire schoolyard of the refugee camp, amid the laughter of children who had seen too much too soon, Adanma rediscovered something she had nearly forgotten–a sense of hope. The future, once shrouded in uncertainty, now shone as a beacon, guiding her through the dark times. She knew that one day, she would leave the camp behind and step into a world where her dreams could finally take flight.

Over the years, Adanma’s determination and resilience saw her through the challenges of the refugee camp. Despite the obstacles, she completed her primary education and moved on to secondary school. By the time she started her secondary school education, she was almost 16 years old. While she was about three years older than students in her class and could be seen as a setback, Adanma used the maturity that comes with her age to her advantage academically. She had an unyielding commitment to her studies, driven by a vision of a future far beyond the confines of the camp.

Adanma’s brothers, who had always been her pillars of support, played a significant role in her academic journey. They provided guidance and encouragement, helping her navigate through the complexities of secondary education. Their support was instrumental in her success. They shared their own experiences and insights, ensuring that Adanma was well-prepared for her examinations.

When the time came for Adanma to take her university entrance examination, which is also the examination for graduating from the six-year secondary school education, she approached the exams with the same fervour that had defined her academic life in the camp. Her hard work paid off, and she achieved impressive results that opened the doors to higher education. Adanma was accepted into a prestigious university in Marfagal, the Marfagal Institute of Technology (MIT), a milestone that her family celebrated with immense pride.

MIT was one of the best universities in the world. Students admitted to MIT were exceptional in academics and/or sport, with exceptional leadership skills or an inspiring life story. Adanma’s exceptional performance in the secondary school leaving examination (SSLE) and inspiring life journey impressed the admission committee. Notably, Adanma was one of the top 10 students with the highest scores in the examination in the country that year. For context, 1.8 million final year secondary students of that year took the examination.

At university, Adanma decided to pursue a Bachelor of Engineering degree in Chemical and Environmental Engineering. Her choice was deeply personal. The memories of the toxic air in her war-torn village, filled with smoke and disease, had left a lasting impact on her, despite being only 9 years old at the time. She vividly recalled the suffering caused by poor air quality and the absence of clean, breathable air. These memories fuelled her desire to ensure that others would never have to endure similar hardships.

Adanma’s time at university was a period of profound growth and discovery. As she delved deeper into her Bachelor of Engineering degree in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, her passion for understanding and improving environmental conditions intensified. One particular module, focusing on indoor air quality (IAQ), ignited a fervent interest in her. The course explored the complex chemistry of indoor air, revealing how pollutants could affect health and well-being.

Intrigued by the subject, Adanma chose to focus on indoor air chemistry for her undergraduate dissertation. She conducted extensive research into how various indoor air pollutants interact with each other and impact human health. Her project involved analysing different air purification methods and their effectiveness in mitigating the effect of indoor air chemistry on human health.

Adanma’s dedication and hard work paid off. She graduated with first-class honours, achieving a perfect GPA of 4.0/4.0. Her outstanding performance earned her recognition and opened doors to further academic pursuits. Her success was celebrated by her family, particularly her brothers, who had been her steadfast supporters throughout her journey.

With a clear vision of her future, Adanma decided to pursue a PhD in Healthy Building for Public Health at the Harleyvard School of Public Health, part of the prestigious Harleyvard University in Marfagal. Harleyvard University was known globally for its unparalleled reputation and was the aspiration of many students and parents alike.

Its esteemed faculty and cutting-edge research facilities provided an ideal environment for Adanma to advance her studies. The opportunity to work with some of the brightest minds in the world was both an honour and a challenge that Adanma embraced with enthusiasm.

Adanma’s choice of PhD programme in Healthy Buildings for Public Health reflected her commitment to addressing IAQ issues and improving public health. At Harleyvard, she planned to build on her undergraduate research, exploring solutions for reducing the effect of outdoor air on IAQ and its resulting effect on human health. However, she was unsure of the particular research area or topic to work on. Nevertheless, the lack of clarity changed during a short summer holiday she took with her parents to Bayunga, her native country, before she started her PhD programme.

Adanma visited Bayunga with her parents, who longed to reconnect with their homeland after years away. Upon arriving, Adanma was immediately struck by the stark contrast between the air quality in her native country and the cleaner environment she had become accustomed to during her 15 years abroad. The moment she stepped out of the airport, the difference was unmistakable.

The air in Bayunga was thick with pollutants and carried a pungent, acrid smell that seemed to linger with every breath. This immediate encounter was a jarring reminder of the environmental degradation her home country had endured, even after nearly a decade since the civil war had ended.

As she explored the city, Adanma’s dismay deepened. The outdoor air quality was alarmingly poor, with pollutants not only pervading the streets but also infiltrating indoor spaces, leaving a persistent, foul odour. Local media reports confirmed her observations, revealing that the primary source of this pollution was the use of poorly refined petrol and diesel in vehicles. These reports detailed how such low-quality fuels were not only damaging cars but also significantly contributing to the city’s overall air pollution.

What troubled Adanma even more was the glaring omission in the public discourse. While there was significant concern about the damage to vehicles, there was scant discussion about the broader public health implications, particularly regarding how the polluted outdoor air affected IAQ. The lack of focus on the impact of these pollutants on the health of residents, especially within their homes, highlighted a critical gap in public awareness and response.

During her stay in Bayunga, Adanma reflected deeply on these issues and their implications for her future research. The oversight regarding the effects of poorly refined fuel on indoor air quality and public health resonated strongly with her due to her background in chemical and environmental engineering. She recognised that addressing this gap could provide significant benefits for her homeland. This realisation inspired her to pursue a PhD, aiming to understand and mitigate the adverse effects of poorly refined fuel on IAQ and public health in Bayunga.

The context for Adanma’s research was shaped by the complexities of her homeland’s oil industry. Despite having substantial crude oil reserves and exported the oil to make billions of dollars, Bayunga faced a severe lack of domestic refining capacity to generate their own fuel. This shortfall led to the importation of substandard, poorly refined fuel, which were sold to people in Bayunga at exorbitant price as a well refined fuel.

The corruption and insufficient investment in refinery infrastructure exacerbated the problem, resulting in continued importation of low-quality fuel and worsening the pollution crisis. Adanma’s research aimed to address these critical issues and contribute to improving public health in her native country. Adanma recognised that her research could provide valuable insights into several pressing questions.

The overarching research questions for her PhD were: (i) What specific pollutants are emitted from vehicles using poorly refined fuel, and how do these pollutants contribute to the degradation of IAQ in residential settings? (ii) How do ventilation rates and the efficiency of air filters affect the mitigation of indoor air pollution in residential environments caused by emissions from poorly refined fuel, and how can these factors be optimised to protect residents’ health? (iii) What are the health impacts on residents exposed to indoor air pollution from the use of poorly refined fuel in vehicles?

These research questions informed the objectives for her PhD. The objectives were: (i) To identify and quantify the specific pollutants emitted from vehicles using poorly refined fuel and assess their impact on IAQ in residential settings. (ii) To investigate how ventilation rates and the efficiency of air filters influence the indoor air pollutants concentrations in residential environments caused by poorly refined fuel emissions, and to determine optimal strategies for enhancing these factors to safeguard residents’ health. (iii) To evaluate the health effects on residents exposed to indoor air pollution resulting from the use of poorly refined fuel in vehicles.

Upon returning to Marfagal, Adanma shared her thoughts with her PhD supervisor, Professor Zinab Chen at the Harleyvard School of Public Health, Marfagal. Professor Chen was a world-leading researcher in the area of using healthy indoor air to improve public health. Professor Chen, like Adanma, was excited about the possibility of conducting research to answer the research questions Adanma had in mind. They applied for a research grant in Marfagal and collaborated with local researchers in Bayunga.

With the support of local researchers in Bayunga, Adanma and Professor Chen were able to secure the backing of the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Housing and Environment in Bayunga to conduct the study.

After completing her required modules in the PhD programme and passing the PhD qualifying examination, Adanma was eligible to proceed to the start of her PhD research field study. She moved to Bayunga to carry out her PhD research. The project research grant made it possible to acquire the latest advanced and artificial intelligence technologies.

Adanma’s parents used the opportunity to travel and stay in Bayunga with her. Adanma’s brothers sponsored the expenses of her parents, whilst her expenses were covered by her PhD stipend and her brothers.

With the research grant, generous support of local researchers and ministries in Bayunga, and the moral support of her parents, Adanma led the field study in her capacity as a PhD researcher. Summaries of Adanma’s PhD research methods and results that addressed the research questions and objectives are provided below.

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Research Methods:

Literature Review

In the initial phase of this methodology, a comprehensive literature review was conducted to establish a foundational understanding of the pollutants typically associated with poorly refined fuels, such as petrol and diesel. This review aimed to identify the impurities in these fuels and the chemical compounds formed when they are combusted as a result of being used in a vehicle. The literature review process was systematic and focused on several key aspects.

The review utilised multiple academic databases, including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, JSTOR, and PubMed. These databases were chosen for their comprehensive coverage of environmental science and chemistry literature. Specific search terms and phrases were employed, such as “impurities in poorly refined fuel,” “combustion of impurities in poorly refined fuel,” “vehicular emission,” etc. Boolean operators (AND, OR) were used to refine the search results.

The review focused on peer-reviewed journal articles, books, and authoritative reports published within the last two decades. Priority was given to studies that addressed the chemical composition of poorly refined fuels and their combustion products. Non-peer-reviewed sources, outdated studies, and research that did not specifically address poorly refined fuels or their combustion products were excluded from the review.

Abstracts and introductions of the identified articles were initially screened to determine relevance to the study’s focus on impurities and pollutants associated with poorly refined fuels. Relevant studies were thoroughly examined to extract detailed information on the types of impurities present in poorly refined fuels and their combustion by-products. This included a review of experimental methods, pollutant measurement techniques, and chemical analyses. The information was categorised based on the type of pollutant. Specific attention was given to how each impurity contributes to the formation of these pollutants.

The findings were synthesised to establish a comprehensive understanding of the link between poorly refined fuels and the emission of key pollutants. The review highlighted gaps in current knowledge, such as limited data on specific impurity levels in poorly refined fuels and their precise impact on indoor air quality and human health. These gaps informed the direction of the subsequent stages of the research.

By systematically reviewing the literature, the research team established a robust understanding of the impurities in poorly refined fuels and their role in generating air pollutants dangerous to human health, especially in residential indoor environments. This foundational knowledge provided a basis for designing the subsequent stages of the research and addressing identified knowledge gaps.

Research Objective 1: Impact of outdoor on indoor

A mixed-methods approach was adopted, combining real-time air quality monitoring with advanced AI analytics to measure and assess the pollutants emitted from vehicles and their impact on indoor air quality. Monitoring devices were deployed both outside and inside selected residential buildings, and AI algorithms were employed to analyse the data.

The study was conducted in 27 high-rise residential buildings situated in areas with high vehicular traffic across the city of Bayunga. These buildings were chosen based on their location near busy roads and being in the same district. Three flats–lower, middle, and higher levels–were studied in each building. The flats studied were on the same side of each building. This arrangement was made to gather additional data on the impact of flat level on the indoor-to-outdoor ratio of air pollutants of outdoor origin.

The buildings were equipped with monitoring devices to assess both outdoor and IAQ. Outdoor sensors were placed on all four sides of the buildings, regardless of whether the studied flat was located on that side or not. An IAQ monitoring sensor was strategically placed in the living room area at a location roughly in the centre of the flat, 1.8m from the floor to prevent young children playing with it, and at a location that does not disrupt the daily activities of the residents, including daily house cleaning. The support of the Bayunga housing authority and the residents of the studied flats made the measurements possible. Data collection occurred over a period of one year.

The initial plan was to measure for six months–three months for each of the two phases. However, the duration was extended due to a two-month stay-at-home notice by the government in response to a viral pandemic outbreak. Measurements had begun approximately two months before the stay-at-home notice was issued.

The devices measured sulphur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters of 0.1 µm (PM_0.1), 2.5 µm (PM_2.5), and 10 µm (PM₁₀), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), lead oxide particulates, lead vapour, and formaldehyde. Continuous data on air pollutant concentrations were collected using high-resolution sensors capable of real-time analysis. The sensors were regularly calibrated to ensure accuracy.

Additionally, advanced smart sensors were strategically placed along busy roads to detect and measure pollutants in the air as vehicles passed by. These sensors measured the concentrations of various emissions from each vehicle that passed by the studied buildings. This measurement differed from the previous one: while the earlier measures assessed the general concentration of air pollutants in outdoor air, the smart sensors directly measured the specific air pollutants and their concentrations from each vehicle.

The smart sensors possessed built-in capabilities to process data locally, filtering out noise and transmitting only relevant information to a central system. This setup determined the percentage of vehicles passing by the studied buildings that used poorly refined fuel (petrol or diesel), as well as the extent and type of impurities present in the poorly refined fuel.

The smart sensors wirelessly transmitted the collected data to a central processing unit (i.e., local server). This data included pollutant concentrations and timestamps, allowing for real-time monitoring. Learning algorithms and analytical models were housed on the local server, which processed the incoming data from multiple sensors. AI created dynamic emission profiles for each passing vehicle by analysing the concentrations of detected pollutants.

The AI compared these profiles against a pre-established database of emission fingerprints associated with different fuel types and impurities. Sophisticated attribution models were employed, considering additional contextual factors such as traffic density, vehicle types, and weather conditions. Based on this analysis, the AI determined which specific impurities were likely present in the fuel used by the vehicles emitting the detected pollutants.

The same air pollutant sensors installed around the studied buildings to measure outdoor concentrations were also installed in various rooms within the selected residential buildings. The IAQ monitors were strategically placed to capture representative data on air pollutants in indoor environments.

Similar to outdoor monitoring, indoor sensors provided continuous, real-time data on air pollutant concentrations. These sensors were calibrated and maintained to ensure reliable measurements. Data from both outdoor and indoor monitoring devices were transmitted to a local server, where AI algorithms integrated and synchronised the data to ensure a comprehensive analysis of pollutant concentrations.

The indoor-to-outdoor air ratio (I/O ratio) for each air pollutant was calculated using the data collected from both outdoor and indoor sensors. The I/O ratio was determined by dividing the indoor concentration of each pollutant by its corresponding outdoor concentration. AI algorithms analysed the I/O ratios to assess the relative impact of outdoor vehicle emissions on IAQ. Variations in the I/O ratio were examined to understand the effectiveness of ventilation and other factors influencing pollutant infiltration. To have a clear picture of the possible impact of outdoor on indoor concentration of air pollutants of interest, filtration scenarios were excluded.

Regular calibration and maintenance of monitoring devices were conducted to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data. Data validation procedures were implemented to check for inconsistencies and ensure the robustness of the findings. Cross-referencing with secondary data sources, if available, was performed to validate the results.

The findings were reported comprehensively, including detailed analyses of measured pollutant concentrations, the purity level of fuel used in vehicles passing the studied buildings during the study period, I/O ratios, and the impact of vehicle emissions on IAQ. The results were interpreted to provide insights into the specific pollutants emitted from vehicles using poorly refined fuel and their effects on IAQ.

Research Objective 2: Mitigation Strategies Assessment

The objective was to identify optimal strategies for enhancing ventilation and filtration to protect residents’ health from pollutants resulting from poorly refined fuel emissions. CO₂ concentrations were continuously monitored in each flat using sensors. As CO₂ is a common indoor pollutant that correlates with occupancy and ventilation, it served as a key proxy for estimating ventilation rates.

AI algorithms were employed to model the relationship between CO₂ concentrations, IAQ, and outdoor conditions (e.g., outdoor air quality, temperature, and humidity). The model accounted for fluctuations in CO₂ as an indicator of changes in occupancy and ventilation without the need to monitor specific activities.

The AI also used data from CO₂ sensors combined with outdoor environmental data (collected from nearby weather stations and outdoor air quality monitors) to estimate ventilation rates indirectly. For example, rapid changes in CO₂ concentrations, coupled with changes in indoor pollutant concentration, were interpreted by the AI as indicative of windows or other facade openings being opened or closed, influencing ventilation.

Historical data from the first three months before the actual one-year measurements commenced were used to train the AI model to recognise patterns in CO₂ fluctuations that corresponded to likely changes in ventilation.

The AI model was refined after the three-month pre-assessment study to improve accuracy in estimating ventilation rates based on CO₂ and other indoor pollutants. The pre-assessment study is study conducted before the actual experiment study that informed the result presented in this thesis.

This refinement allowed the system to make increasingly accurate predictions about ventilation without the need for real-time documentation of resident activities. The AI model continuously updated its estimates as new data were collected, ensuring that ventilation rates were calculated in a way that reflected actual conditions in the flats.

During the pre-assessment, the AI model’s estimates of ventilation rates were cross validated with tracer gas measurements in some of the 27 buildings used for the study. The residents allowed a tracer gas measurement to be conducted on one day during the three-month pre-assessment study. The AI system was recalibrated using this validation data to ensure its accuracy in estimating ventilation rates.

To evaluate the impact of air filters on IAQ within residential settings, the selected 27 residential buildings of the same design used for this study were divided according to their proximity to the three express roads of interest. Thus, there were nine buildings in each location category. Each category was designated to receive air filter units of varying efficiency levels following an initial period (i.e., first 6 months of the actual study) without any air filtration.

The air filter types were grouped as ‘low-efficiency filter’, ‘medium-efficiency filter’, and ‘high-efficiency filter’. That means selected flats in three buildings in each location category received the same filter type.

As the residential buildings were naturally ventilated, one air filter unit for each flat was placed in the living room. This means the filters were intended to reduce air pollutant concentration in the indoor air and not to reduce or mitigate the transportation of outdoor air into indoor environments.

In the first phase of the study, spanning six months, the focus was on establishing baseline IAQ. During this period, residents were not provided with any air filters and were instructed to refrain from using any air filtration or purification devices. Continuous monitoring of IAQ was carried out using sensors that measured air pollutants of interest. The data collected during this no-filtration period were transmitted to a central server, serving as a control to understand the IAQ without the influence of filtration.

Following the baseline measurement phase, the study transitioned into the intervention phase. During the next six months, air filter units were deployed. Sensors specially integrated with the filters measured pollutant concentrations before and after the filtration process. This data was used to evaluate the efficiency of air filters in removing pollutants from indoor air.

The data collected during this filtration period were also transmitted to a central server to understand the impact of filter usage on the concentrations of the measured indoor air pollutants. Regular compliance checks were conducted to ensure that residents used only the provided filters and did not employ any additional air purification devices.

The AI-based central server integrated data from ventilation rate estimations, pollutant concentrations, and filter efficiency measurements. This integration enabled a comprehensive analysis of how ventilation and filtration systems impacted IAQ.

Statistical methods such as ANOVA (analysis of variance) were employed to analyse differences in indoor air pollutant concentrations, accounting for potential confounders like ventilation rates, resident behaviour, variation in flat configuration, despite being of the same design, split air conditioning units, etc. The study was designed to minimise intrusion into residents’ daily lives. In line with the obtained informed consent from all participants, personal data was anonymised to protect privacy.

Research Objective 3: Health Impact Assessment

A mixed-methods approach was adopted to evaluate the short-term and long-term health effects on residents exposed to indoor air pollution resulting from the use of poorly refined fuel in vehicles. This methodology combined quantitative and qualitative methods to provide a comprehensive understanding of the health impacts, focusing on both immediate and prolonged exposure.

The study was conducted over a period of one year due to the outbreak, allowing for the observation of both the first health impact assessment (within six months) and the second health impact assessment (up to one year).

Participants were residents of the selected buildings, representing a diverse demographic range, including various age groups, genders, and health statuses. A stratified random sampling method was used to ensure a representative sample. A total of 260 participants were selected, with at least 9 residents from each building, i.e., at least 3 participants from the lower, middle, and upper floor flats of each building.

The reasoning was whether variation in floor level affected the impact of outdoor air pollution on indoor air pollution and whether this variation, if it existed, impacted the health effects. Participants were informed of the study’s objectives and provided informed consent before data collection began.

At the outset, all participants underwent a comprehensive health assessment to establish a baseline. Detailed medical histories, including pre-existing conditions, respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular health, and any previous exposure to pollutants, were collected. General physical examinations focusing on the respiratory and cardiovascular systems were conducted. Spirometry tests were carried out to measure lung capacity and function. Biomarkers associated with inflammation, oxidative stress, and exposure to the measured air pollutants of interest in the indoor environment were also evaluated.

The first health impact assessments were conducted at 6-month intervals, and the second health impact assessments were conducted at up to one-year intervals. These assessments included repeat lung function tests, blood tests, and symptom questionnaires focusing on respiratory and cardiovascular symptoms. The IAQ data were synchronised with health data to establish correlations between pollutant exposure and observed health effects. The analysis focused on identifying specific pollutants associated with particular health outcomes.

Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). Descriptive statistics were used to summarise baseline characteristics and pollutant levels. Longitudinal data analysis methods, including mixed-effects models, were employed to assess the relationship between pollutant exposure and health outcomes over time. The quantitative analysis accounted for confounding variables such as age, gender, pre-existing conditions, and lifestyle factors.

In addition to quantitative measures, qualitative data were collected through interviews and focus group discussions with participants. These discussions explored the participants’ perceptions of their indoor air quality, health impacts, and coping strategies. The qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and concerns.

Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the relevant institutional review board. Participants were fully informed about the study’s aims, procedures, and potential risks. Confidentiality was maintained throughout the study, with data anonymised to protect participants’ identities.

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Research Findings:

Literature review

The review meticulously examined the range of impurities commonly found in poorly refined fuels, including both petrol and diesel. These impurities encompass a variety of chemical compounds that are indicative of suboptimal refining processes. Notable among these impurities are sulphur compounds, heavy metals such as lead and nickel, nitrogen-containing compounds, oxygenates, and reactive hydrocarbons.

Sulphur compounds are among the most prevalent impurities in poorly refined fuels. Examples include hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) and sulphur dioxide (SO₂), which are often present in crude oil and are not entirely removed during the refining process. The presence of these sulphur compounds is problematic because, upon combustion, they generate sulphur dioxide, a major air pollutant that contributes to the formation of acid rain and adversely affects respiratory health.

Heavy metals, including lead and nickel, are also commonly found in poorly refined fuels. These metals can either be present in the crude oil or introduced during the refining process. The incomplete removal of such heavy metals results in their emission during fuel combustion. Lead, in particular, contributes to the formation of lead oxide particulates and vapour, which are harmful to both human health and the environment. Nickel, on the other hand, can contribute to the overall particulate matter, exacerbating air quality issues.

Nitrogen-containing compounds, such as ammonia (NH₃) and various nitriles, are another group of impurities often found in fuels. These compounds originate from the nitrogen present in crude oil. During combustion, these compounds react to form nitrogen oxides (NO_x), which are significant contributors to air pollution. NO_x emissions are associated with the formation of smog and acid rain, further impacting air quality and public health.

Oxygenates, including methanol and ethanol, are added to fuels to enhance combustion efficiency and reduce emissions. However, their presence as impurities can lead to unintended consequences. When these oxygenates combust, they can form additional pollutants such as formaldehyde (CH₂O), which is a volatile organic compound (VOC) with potential health risks.

Reactive hydrocarbons, such as alkenes, aromatics, alkynes, cycloalkanes, and aliphatic hydrocarbons, are also prevalent in poorly refined fuels. These hydrocarbons can react during combustion to form a range of pollutants. Alkenes and alkynes can lead to the production of ozone and other oxidants, while aromatics contribute to the formation of particulate matter and VOCs.

The review highlighted that the incomplete removal of these impurities during the refining process leads to the formation of several hazardous air pollutants. The combustion of poorly refined fuels results in the emission of sulphur dioxide (SO₂), particulate matter (PM_0.1, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as formaldehyde. The presence of sulphur and heavy metals in the fuel significantly contributes to these pollutants, with each impurity playing a role in different aspects of emission profiles.

Furthermore, the review identified potential pathways through which these pollutants infiltrate indoor environments, particularly in urban settings where vehicle emissions are a major concern. Pollutants from the combustion of poorly refined fuels can penetrate buildings through ventilation systems or simply due to the proximity of high-traffic areas. In buildings with inadequate ventilation, the concentration of these pollutants can rise, leading to deteriorated IAQ and posing health risks to occupants.

The literature consistently pointed to significant health risks associated with exposure to pollutants generated by the combustion of poorly refined fuels. Prolonged exposure to elevated levels of sulphur dioxide, particulate matter, and VOCs has been linked to respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and an increased risk of cancer. The review underscored the vulnerability of individuals with pre-existing health conditions and compromised immune systems, highlighting the need for targeted public health interventions.

Despite the extensive information gathered, the review also uncovered several gaps in the current understanding of the issue. There is limited data on the specific levels of impurities in poorly refined fuels across different regions, making it challenging to assess the full extent of the problem.

Additionally, detailed studies on the mechanisms by which these impurities contribute to indoor air pollutants are lacking. The review also identified a need for further research into the long-term health effects of exposure to pollutants from poorly refined fuels, especially in residential indoor environments.

The findings from the literature review provided a robust foundation for subsequent research stages. They highlighted the necessity of further empirical studies to quantify impurity levels in poorly refined fuels and assess their impact on IAQ and human health. The review emphasised the importance of developing effective mitigation strategies, such as improved ventilation systems and advanced air filtration technologies, to protect occupants from the health risks associated with these pollutants.

The literature review established a clear link between poorly refined fuels, the emission of harmful air pollutants, and associated health risks, particularly in indoor environments. The literature review necessitated the need to collect empirical data to define the suspected problem in Bayunga.

The insights gained from the literature review guided the research reported in this thesis, ensuring it addresses critical gaps in knowledge and contributes to improved public health outcomes in urban settings, including that of Bayunga.

Research Objective 1: Impact of outdoor on indoor

The AI-based real-time emission monitoring system, integrated with AI-driven sensitive analytical technologies, revealed that many vehicles passing the roads around the studied buildings were using fuels with high levels of impurities. These impurities included sulphur compounds, reactive hydrocarbons, lead, nitrogen-containing compounds, and oxygenates (e.g., methanol, ethanol).

The presence of these impurities contributed to elevated concentrations of pollutants such as SO₂, PM_0.1, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, CO, NO_x, lead oxide particulates, lead vapour, and formaldehyde, particularly during peak traffic periods. The AI’s precise identification of these impurities provided a clearer understanding of how poor fuel quality impacts air quality in the urban environment surrounding the buildings.

The investigation revealed a distinct correlation between vehicular traffic and concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO₂). Elevated SO₂ concentrations were consistently detected in the outdoor air surrounding high-rise residential buildings, with peak concentrations aligning closely with periods of high traffic density, notably during rush hours. This correlation was especially pronounced on weekdays, reflecting the increased vehicular activity typical of these days.

Indoors, SO₂ concentrations mirrored the outdoor trends, with elevated concentrations primarily observed in lower-floor apartments. This phenomenon was attributed to the greater infiltration of outdoor pollutants into these lower-floor units, which are closer to the emission sources.

The study identified that vehicles using poorly refined fuel significantly contributed to the observed SO₂ levels. Such fuels, characterised by higher sulphur content, emitted greater quantities of sulphur compounds, exacerbating SO₂ concentrations both outside and inside the buildings.

A significant reduction in SO₂ levels, both outdoors and indoors, was recorded during periods of reduced traffic, such as weekends and late-night hours. This reduction was markedly pronounced during the government-imposed stay-at-home notice due to the pandemic, which led to a substantial decrease in vehicular activity and, consequently, lower outdoor and indoor air pollutant concentrations.

The study meticulously measured SO₂ concentrations to evaluate the infiltration of outdoor pollutants into indoor environments. The I/O ratio for SO₂ was notably high in lower-floor apartments, averaging approximately 0.9. This high ratio indicated that indoor SO₂ concentrations were about 90% of outdoor levels. During periods of peak traffic, outdoor SO₂ concentrations surged to 150 µg/m³. Correspondingly, indoor SO₂ levels in lower-floor apartments averaged around 135 µg/m³.

In contrast, middle-floor and upper-floor apartments exhibited lower I/O ratios of 0.7 and 0.5, respectively. For these floors, outdoor SO₂ concentrations remained consistent at 150 µg/m³, but indoor concentrations decreased with height.

In middle-floor apartments, the indoor SO₂ concentration averaged 105 µg/m³, while in upper-floor apartments, it dropped to approximately 75 µg/m³. This pattern underscores the significant impact of vehicular emissions on indoor SO₂ concentrations, particularly in lower-floor apartments where outdoor pollutants have a more direct path into living environments.

The study uncovered high concentrations of particulate matter in both outdoor and indoor environments, with particulate concentrations strongly correlating with traffic density. Among these, PM_0.1–representing ultrafine particles–showed the highest indoor-to-outdoor (I/O) ratio. This finding suggests that ultrafine particles from outdoor traffic infiltrated indoor environments more effectively than larger particles.

During peak traffic hours, particularly in the mornings and late afternoons, elevated concentrations of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ were detected around the buildings. The AI analysis indicated that poorly refined fuel contributed to increased emissions of particulate matter, with pollutants from these fuels correlating with higher concentrations of PM_0.1, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀.

The relationship between reduced traffic and lower particulate levels was evident, with weekends and nights showing decreased PM concentrations both outdoors and indoors. The pandemic lockdown further illustrated this trend, as significantly lower particulate levels were observed during the two-month stay-at-home period, reflecting the reduced vehicular emissions during this time.

Particulate matter concentrations were analysed for various sizes to assess their impact on IAQ. The I/O ratio for PM_0.1 was notably high in lower-floor apartments, averaging 1.2. This ratio indicated that indoor concentrations of ultrafine particles were 20% higher than outdoor levels. In lower-floor apartments, PM_0.1 concentrations averaged 80 µg/m³ compared to 67 µg/m³ outdoors.

The high I/O ratio of 1.2, combined with the elevated indoor concentrations of PM_0.1, indicates that outdoor pollution plays a significant role in indoor PM_0.1 concentrations. Although indoor concentrations are higher than outdoor concentrations, this increase suggests that factors such as poor ventilation and indoor obstructions may lead to greater accumulation of ultrafine particles indoors. Additionally, the high outdoor concentrations of PM_0.1 contribute to the elevated indoor concentrations by infiltrating and accumulating inside.

For PM_2.5, the I/O ratio was 1.09 in lower floors, reflecting that indoor concentrations were approximately 9.1% higher than outdoor levels. PM_2.5 concentrations indoors in lower floors averaged 120 µg/m³, while outdoor levels were 110 µg/m³. In middle-floor apartments, the I/O ratio was 0.7, and in upper floors, it was 0.6. Similarly, for PM₁₀, the I/O ratio in lower-floor apartments was 1.07, with indoor concentrations averaging 150 µg/m³ versus 140 µg/m³ outdoors. Middle-floor and upper-floor I/O ratios were 0.7 and 0.6, respectively, indicating a decrease in particulate infiltration with increasing floor height.

The observation shows that the I/O ratios for PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 in middle and upper floors are less than 1 (0.7 and 0.6 respectively). This indicates that indoor concentrations are lower than outdoor concentrations, which typically suggests that outdoor sources are a significant contributor to the indoor PM concentrations.

The decrease in the I/O ratio with increasing floor height (lower on lower floors and higher on upper floors) implies that as you move higher up in the building, the contribution of outdoor PM to indoor concentrations decreases. This is consistent with the idea that outdoor sources are a major contributor to indoor PM concentrations, as lower floors experience more direct exposure to outdoor pollutants.

It is important to note the following in the case of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀. The I/O ratio of 1.09 for lower floors suggests indoor PM_2.5 concentrations are slightly higher than outdoor concentrations, indicating some degree of indoor contribution but still reflecting significant outdoor influence. In the case of PM₁₀, the I/O ratio of 1.07 for lower floors, and ratios of 0.7 and 0.6 for middle and upper floors, respectively, further supports the idea that outdoor sources are a significant contributor, especially since the ratio decreases as floor height increases.

Carbon monoxide (CO) levels were found to be elevated in both outdoor and indoor environments, with higher concentrations detected near busy roads. The I/O ratio for CO was notably higher in lower-floor apartments, indicating substantial infiltration of CO from outdoor sources. The study identified vehicles using poorly refined fuel as significant contributors to high indoor CO levels.

CO levels followed traffic patterns closely. Lower concentrations were recorded during periods of reduced traffic, such as weekends and late nights. This trend was particularly noticeable during the pandemic lockdown, when CO levels decreased in tandem with reduced vehicular activity, highlighting the direct impact of traffic reduction on indoor CO concentrations.

The observed high I/O ratio of 1.3 in lower-floor apartments indicated that indoor CO levels were 30% higher than outdoor levels. With outdoor CO concentrations averaging 5.0 mg/m³ and indoor levels in lower-floor apartments averaging 6.5 mg/m³, this suggests that outdoor CO pollution significantly impacts IAQ.

Lower floors experience higher indoor concentrations due to their proximity to ground-level emissions. However, it’s also important to acknowledge that indoor sources of CO, such as cooking appliances and poor ventilation, could contribute to elevated indoor concentrations.

In middle-floor apartments, the I/O ratio was 1.1, reflecting a smaller degree of infiltration compared to lower floors. Indoor CO concentrations in middle-floor apartments averaged 5.5 mg/m³, while outdoor levels remained at 5.0 mg/m³.

This indicates that while middle floors still experience elevated indoor CO levels, the impact of outdoor pollution is somewhat reduced compared to lower floors. Indoor sources may also contribute to the higher concentrations observed on these floors.

Upper-floor apartments had an I/O ratio of 0.9, with indoor CO concentrations averaging 4.5 mg/m³ compared to outdoor levels of 5.0 mg/m³. This lower I/O ratio suggests that CO infiltration is less significant in upper-floor apartments, resulting in indoor concentrations that are lower than outdoor levels. This gradient demonstrates that CO infiltration decreases with height, emphasising the greater impact of vehicular emissions on lower-floor apartments due to their proximity to ground-level sources.

Additionally, indoor activities and sources may also influence indoor CO concentrations. Despite potential indoor contributions, the reduction in outdoor concentrations with increasing height suggests that outdoor air remains a major contributor to the measured CO in the apartments.

Elevated levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which is a collection of Nitric oxide (NO), Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), Nitrous oxide (N₂O), Dinitrogen trioxide (N₂O₃), Dinitrogen tetroxide (N₂O₄), and Dinitrogen pentoxide (N₂O₅) in this study, were detected around and inside the buildings. The I/O ratios for NO_x were high, particularly in lower-floor apartments, indicating considerable infiltration from outdoor sources.

The study found a clear link between poorly refined fuel and increased NOx emissions, which contributed to poorer IAQ. As with other pollutants, NOx levels were higher during periods of heavy traffic and lower during times of reduced traffic, such as weekends and late nights. The pandemic lockdown further underscored this correlation, with NO_x levels decreasing significantly during the stay-at-home period.

The study recorded high I/O ratios for NO_x, particularly in lower-floor apartments, averaging 1.1. This ratio indicated substantial infiltration of outdoor NO_x into indoor spaces. During peak traffic, outdoor NO_x concentrations reached 200 µg/m³, while indoor concentrations in lower floors averaged 220 µg/m³.

Middle-floor apartments exhibited an I/O ratio of 1.0, with indoor NOx concentrations averaging 200 µg/m³. Upper-floor apartments had an I/O ratio of 0.8, with indoor NO_x levels averaging 160 µg/m³. The high I/O ratios in lower-floor apartments highlighted the pronounced impact of vehicular emissions on indoor NO_x levels.

Lead concentrations, both in particulate and vapour forms, were higher in areas with dense traffic. The analysis indicated that poorly refined fuels, which often have higher lead content, were a significant source of lead emissions. Elevated lead concentrations were detected indoors, particularly in lower-floor apartments, which experienced greater infiltration of outdoor pollutants.

The correlation between traffic patterns and lead levels was evident, with reduced traffic leading to lower indoor lead concentrations. The pandemic lockdown period saw a marked decrease in lead concentrations, consistent with the overall reduction in vehicular emissions.

In lower-floor apartments, despite outdoor lead concentrations averaging 30 ng/m³, the indoor levels were around 36 ng/m³, resulting in an I/O ratio of 1.2. This indicates that indoor lead concentrations were 20% higher than outdoor levels, suggesting that while outdoor sources are substantial, poor ventilation and possible indoor sources allow the lead concentrations to accumulate indoors. The high I/O ratio reflects that inadequate ventilation exacerbates indoor lead concentrations by failing to sufficiently dilute or remove the pollutants.

Middle-floor apartments displayed an I/O ratio of 1.0, with indoor lead concentrations matching outdoor levels at 30 ng/m³. This equilibrium suggests that although outdoor concentrations are consistent, poor ventilation may still be contributing to elevated indoor concentration by not effectively managing the influx of pollutants. There could also be indoor sources.

In upper-floor apartments, where the I/O ratio was 0.8 and indoor lead levels averaged 24 ng/m³ compared to outdoor levels of 30 ng/m³, the decrease in indoor lead concentration from 36 ng/m³ on lower floors indicates that lead infiltration from outdoor sources diminishes with height.

Despite this reduction, the fact that indoor lead concentrations are lower but still significant suggests that while outdoor lead pollution plays a role, the relatively high indoor concentrations on lower floors point to other potential sources or factors contributing to indoor lead.

For upper floors, the decrease in both outdoor and indoor concentrations implies that lead pollution from outdoor sources is less of a problem, but indoor factors such as past use of leaded materials or insufficient ventilation could still be contributing to indoor lead concentrations.

Indoor formaldehyde concentrations were consistently higher than outdoor concentrations, with increased infiltration observed in lower-floor apartments. The elevated indoor formaldehyde concentrations were linked to vehicle emissions, with poorly refined fuels contributing to higher formaldehyde concentrations.

The pattern of formaldehyde levels followed similar trends to other pollutants, with reductions observed during periods of reduced traffic and during the pandemic lockdown. The decrease in formaldehyde concentrations during the lockdown further illustrated the direct impact of reduced vehicular emissions on IAQ.

The high I/O ratio of 1.3 in lower-floor apartments indicates that indoor formaldehyde concentrations were 30% higher than outdoor levels. With outdoor formaldehyde averaging 60 µg/m³ and indoor concentrations in lower-floor apartments reaching 78 µg/m³, it suggests that outdoor pollution, particularly from vehicular emissions, significantly influences IAQ.

The elevated I/O ratio in these apartments points to substantial infiltration of formaldehyde from outside sources, which is exacerbated by poor ventilation that fails to effectively dilute and remove indoor pollutants.

In middle-floor apartments, the I/O ratio of 1.1 shows that indoor formaldehyde levels averaged 66 µg/m³, slightly higher than the outdoor average of 60 µg/m³. Although the impact of outdoor sources is somewhat reduced compared to lower floors, the elevated indoor concentrations still suggest that indoor formaldehyde sources or inefficient ventilation contribute to higher levels.

For upper-floor apartments, the I/O ratio of 0.9 and indoor concentrations averaging 54 µg/m³ indicate that indoor concentrations are lower than outdoor concentrations. While this suggests reduced infiltration of outdoor formaldehyde, the relatively high indoor concentrations despite a lower I/O ratio imply that poor ventilation continues to be a significant factor. Inadequate ventilation can lead to the accumulation of formaldehyde indoors, even when outdoor levels are lower.

Research Objective 2: Health Impact Assessment

The AI model utilised for estimating ventilation rates demonstrated significant advancements in both accuracy and real-time adaptability, reflecting its sophisticated capabilities in managing and interpreting indoor air quality data.

The AI model’s precision in estimating ventilation rates showed notable improvement during the three-month pre-assessment phase. Initially, the model’s predictions were calibrated using historical data and general ventilation parameters. However, the recalibration process, which incorporated tracer gas data, led to a substantial enhancement in accuracy. This recalibration was critical as it allowed the model to more effectively account for the complex dynamics of indoor air movement.

The integration of tracer gas data provided a more granular understanding of airflow patterns and pollutant dispersion, enabling the AI to identify subtle variations in ventilation rates. As a result, the model’s accuracy in estimating ventilation rates improved by 15%. This improvement is significant as it reflects the AI’s enhanced capability to detect and interpret minor fluctuations in ventilation patterns, which are crucial for maintaining optimal indoor air quality.

The AI system’s real-time adaptation feature was a key factor in its effectiveness. The model continuously updated its estimates based on incoming data, allowing it to adjust dynamically to changing indoor conditions. This capability was particularly important in environments where ventilation rates and pollutant levels fluctuated due to various factors such as occupancy changes, outdoor air conditions, and operational activities.

The AI’s continuous update mechanism enabled it to provide near-instantaneous feedback on ventilation and air pollutant concentrations, with an estimated error margin of less than 5%. This level of precision is critical for ensuring that ventilation systems are responsive to real-time air quality needs and that any potential issues are promptly addressed.

Overall, the AI model’s demonstrated capabilities in precision and real-time adaptation underscore its effectiveness as a tool for improving IAQ management. By enhancing accuracy through recalibration and maintaining a high level of responsiveness to dynamic conditions, the AI model offers a robust solution for estimating and optimising ventilation rates in various indoor environments.

Low-efficiency filters demonstrated modest improvements in IAQ compared to the initial six months of the study when no filters were used. These filters achieved a reduction in PM_2.5 concentrations by approximately 20% and PM₁₀ by 15%. However, their effectiveness in reducing PM_0.1, the smallest and most harmful particulate matter, was limited to about 10%. This indicates that low-efficiency filters were not particularly effective at capturing ultrafine particles, which are known to penetrate deeply into the respiratory system and pose significant health risks.

The reduction in lead vapour and lead oxides with low-efficiency filters was approximately 12% and 10%, respectively. This minimal reduction suggests that these filters had a limited capacity to address lead-related pollutants, which are crucial to monitor due to their severe health implications, including cognitive and developmental effects.

In terms of gaseous pollutants, low-efficiency filters reduced NO_x and CO concentrations by only about 10%. This limited effectiveness highlights the challenges faced when using low-efficiency filters in managing IAQ comprehensively.

Medium-efficiency filters exhibited more substantial improvements in IAQ compared to low-efficiency filters. They achieved a 40% reduction in PM_2.5 and a 30% reduction in PM₁₀, reflecting a better performance in capturing particulate matter. The reduction in PM_0.1 was about 25%, indicating an improved capacity to filter ultrafine particles compared to low-efficiency filters.

Lead vapour and lead oxides saw reductions of 25% and 20%, respectively, with medium-efficiency filters. These figures suggest that medium-efficiency filters are better suited to address the health risks associated with lead exposure.

For gaseous pollutants, medium-efficiency filters achieved reductions of approximately 25% in NO_x and 20% in CO. This improvement demonstrates a better performance in managing gaseous pollutants compared to low-efficiency filters, providing a more comprehensive approach to improving IAQ.

High-efficiency filters provided the most extensive reduction in all pollutant categories. These filters reduced PM_0.1 concentrations by approximately 50%, PM_2.5 by 45%, and PM₁₀ by 40%. This significant reduction in particulate matter indicates that high-efficiency filters are highly effective at capturing both fine and coarse particles, which are crucial for improving respiratory health.

In terms of lead-related pollutants, high-efficiency filters achieved a reduction of about 35% in lead vapour and 30% in lead oxides. This enhanced performance underscores the filters’ superior capability to manage lead-related pollutants, which are important for mitigating health risks associated with lead exposure.

High-efficiency filters also led to a 35% reduction in NO_x and a 30% reduction in CO. Additionally, they reduced formaldehyde levels by 50%, demonstrating their comprehensive ability to manage both particulate and gaseous pollutants effectively.

In conclusion, high-efficiency filters consistently offered the most substantial improvements in IAQ across all floors. Medium-efficiency filters also demonstrated significant benefits, particularly on middle and higher floors, while low-efficiency filters provided limited improvements. The study highlights the importance of selecting appropriate air filters based on specific air quality needs and building characteristics to effectively mitigate health risks associated with indoor air pollution.

The study found a consistent association between high CO₂ concentrations and elevated concentrations of indoor air pollutants across all measured categories. When CO₂ concentrations exceeded the threshold indicative of poor ventilation, typically around 1000 ppm, there was a notable increase in the concentrations of various pollutants.

Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) concentrations rose by up to 20% during periods of high CO₂, demonstrating that inadequate ventilation exacerbated the accumulation of this harmful gas. Similarly, concentrations of particulate matter (PM_0.1, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀) increased significantly, with PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ concentrations rising by up to 20%. PM_0.1, the smallest and most hazardous particulate matter, increased by up to 15%, highlighting the impact of poor ventilation on ultrafine particles.

Carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations also increased by up to 15% during periods of high CO₂, and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) concentrations followed a similar pattern, rising by up to 15% under poor ventilation conditions.

The accumulation of lead-related pollutants was particularly concerning, with lead oxide particulate concentrations rising by up to 15% and lead vapour concentrations increasing by up to 12% in poorly ventilated spaces. Formaldehyde (CH₂O) concentrations increased by up to 20%, reflecting the compound’s persistence in environments with limited ventilation.

The correlation between high CO₂ concentrations and elevated pollutant concentrations was most pronounced during peak indoor activities, such as cooking or when rooms were fully occupied. These activities naturally elevated CO₂ concentrations, and without adequate ventilation, the concurrent rise in pollutant concentrations became more significant. This pattern underscores the importance of maintaining effective ventilation, especially during periods of high occupancy, to prevent the accumulation of indoor pollutants.

In cases where ventilation was improved, such as by opening windows, a significant reduction in CO₂ concentrations was observed. This improvement in ventilation led to corresponding decreases in indoor air pollutant concentrations across all measured categories. For example, reducing CO₂ concentrations by 50%, to levels indicative of adequate ventilation (typically around 500-600 ppm), resulted in observed reductions of up to 30% in indoor pollutant concentrations.

Specifically, SO₂ concentrations decreased by up to 30%, while PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ concentrations fell by up to 30%. PM_0.1 concentrations saw a reduction of up to 25%. Carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations decreased by up to 25%, and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) concentrations were reduced by up to 25%. Lead-related pollutants decreased by up to 20% for lead oxide particulates and 15% for lead vapour. Formaldehyde (CH₂O) concentrations also decreased by up to 30%, highlighting the effectiveness of improved ventilation in managing these pollutants.

The reduction in indoor air pollutant concentrations due to enhanced ventilation was most significant in areas with initially high CO₂ and indoor air pollutant concentrations, typically on lower floors or in rooms with limited natural ventilation. Even on higher floors or in better-ventilated rooms, where overall pollutant concentrations were lower, improved ventilation still led to notable reductions in pollutant concentrations. This underscores the necessity of adequate air exchange regardless of initial conditions.

In buildings with generally poor ventilation, pollutants such as SO₂, PM_0.1, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, CO, NO_x, lead oxide particulates, lead vapour, and formaldehyde accumulated over time, leading to a gradual decline in IAQ. Although short-term improvements in ventilation could significantly reduce pollutant concentrations, sustained poor ventilation could reverse these gains, emphasising the need for consistent and effective ventilation strategies.

During the study, sustained poor ventilation was observed in the buildings. Residents, as well as field observations, indicated that they limited the extent to which they opened their windows due to concerns about polluted outdoor air and perceived poor air quality, as well as potential adverse health effects of the air pollutants.

Based on the research findings, several key recommendations for improving IAQ through filter selection and ventilation practices have emerged. To begin with, selecting the right filters is essential for optimising IAQ. High-efficiency filters are particularly recommended for environments exposed to significant outdoor pollution.

Specifically, high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are crucial for capturing fine particulate matter, such as PM_0.1, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀. HEPA filters are designed to remove particles as small as 0.3 micrometres with an efficiency of 99.97%, which significantly reduces indoor concentrations of harmful particulates. HEPA filters were not used in this study.

In addition to particulate filters, activated carbon filters play a vital role in managing gaseous pollutants. These filters are effective in adsorbing gases and vapours, including CO, NO_x, SO₂, and CH₂O. A combination of HEPA and activated carbon filters can provide comprehensive protection by addressing both particulate and gaseous pollutants, ensuring a thorough approach to maintaining good IAQ. Neither activated carbon nor particulate filter impregnated with activated carbon was used in this study.

Regarding ventilation practices, the study highlights the importance of increasing ventilation while addressing the challenge of consistently high outdoor pollution levels. In a naturally ventilated building, one effective strategy is to increase ventilation through the proper opening of windows, but this should be complemented by using particulate filters impregnated with a moderate to high amount of activated carbon.

In the context of naturally ventilated buildings similar to those used in this study, these impregnated filters placed in the indoor environment capture indoor air pollutants, including particulate matter and gases, clean it up, and supply cleaner air back into the indoor environment.

The higher the rate at which this is done, the higher the volume of air cleaned per unit time, and the higher the efficiency of the filter or clean air delivery rate (specifically related to particulate matter), the better the quality of the indoor air and the higher the likelihood of occupants experiencing healthy living.

Moreover, employing ventilation systems that incorporate these advanced filters allows for effective air exchange while protecting against outdoor pollutants. This method helps to maintain IAQ and ensures that the benefits of increased ventilation are not compromised by the intrusion of outdoor pollutants.

Regular monitoring of indoor CO₂ concentrations is also crucial. High CO₂ levels can indicate inadequate ventilation, and thus adjusting the extent of window openings and the operation of ventilation systems based on CO₂ readings can ensure effective air exchange.

Additionally, it is important to maintain and replace filters regularly to ensure their continued effectiveness. Over time, filters can become saturated or clogged, which reduces their ability to capture pollutants and diminishes their overall efficiency.

In summary, the study recommends enhancing ventilation by properly opening windows and using filters with activated carbon to address high outdoor pollution. This approach balances the need for improved IAQ with the need to minimise the intrusion of outdoor pollutants, ensuring a healthier indoor environment.

Research Objective 3: Health Impact Assessment

At the baseline assessment, participants exhibited notable health effects consistent with prolonged exposure to indoor air pollutants. Despite the absence of severe acute health conditions, there were clear indications of long-term exposure impacts. The average Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) was 3.35 litres, and the Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) averaged 4.46 litres.

Although these values fall within the lower end of the normal range, they reflect a degree of respiratory impairment that could be attributed to chronic exposure to pollutants. This diminished lung function was suggestive of ongoing respiratory stress and potential early-stage damage due to long-term exposure.

Biomarker analysis further highlighted the effects of sustained pollution exposure. C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of systemic inflammation, had an average level of 1.3 mg/L. This level, whilst within a range considered normal, indicated a state of chronic, low-grade inflammation, which is often associated with persistent exposure to environmental stressors, including air pollutants.

At the baseline assessment, after years of exposure to indoor air pollutants, oxidative stress markers such as 8-isoprostane were found to be elevated compared to typical baseline levels. This elevation in 8-isoprostane indicates increased oxidative damage, suggesting that participants had experienced significant oxidative stress due to prolonged exposure to indoor air pollutants.

These findings underscore that even at the initial assessment, participants’ health was compromised by years of exposure to indoor air pollutants. The combination of slightly reduced lung function, chronic inflammation, and oxidative stress reflects the cumulative impact of long-term exposure, highlighting the need for continued monitoring and intervention to address and mitigate the health effects associated with poor indoor air quality.

By the six-month assessment, the adverse health impacts of indoor air pollution had become more pronounced, with notable variations observed across different floor levels. The IAQ measurements revealed that lower floors continued to experience elevated indoor air pollutant concentrations, reflecting a persistent influx of outdoor pollution. Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters of 0.1 µm (PM_0.1), 2.5 µm (PM_2.5), and 10 µm (PM₁₀) exhibited particularly high concentrations on lower floors.

Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and formaldehyde concentrations were also elevated on lower floors, with levels of 0.1 ppm and 0.09 ppm, respectively. These air pollutants, typically associated with industrial emissions and vehicle exhaust, further compounded the IAQ issues for residents living on these lower floors.

The elevated levels of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) on lower floors, in comparison to upper floors, suggested a persistent and more significant infiltration of outdoor pollution, consistent with the observed higher concentrations of particulate matter and gases.

The health impacts of these elevated pollutant levels became evident through the reported symptoms and clinical findings. Approximately 40% of participants reported an increase in respiratory symptoms, such as cough, shortness of breath, and wheezing, with those residing on lower floors being disproportionately affected. This pattern highlighted the direct relationship between higher indoor air pollutant concentrations and worsened respiratory health.

Lung function tests revealed a notable decline among residents on lower floors. The average Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) decreased to 3.28 litres, and the Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) dropped to 4.35 litres, signifying a measurable reduction in lung capacity and function. Cardiovascular symptoms, including chest pain and palpitations, were reported by 15% of participants, with a higher incidence among those on lower floors.

Blood tests further supported these findings, with an increase in C-reactive protein (CRP) levels by 1.5 mg/L, indicating heightened systemic inflammation. After six months of continued exposure to indoor air pollutants without the use of air filters, 8-isoprostane levels, a marker of oxidative stress, increased by 35%. This rise in 8-isoprostane reflects heightened oxidative damage resulting from ongoing pollutant exposure.

Additionally, elevated lead concentrations were detected in the blood of residents on lower floors, indicating exposure to lead oxide particulates and lead vapour, which could contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular health issues.

These findings underscore the significant impact of indoor air pollution on health outcomes. The elevated concentrations of pollutants and the associated increase in respiratory and cardiovascular symptoms highlight the detrimental effects of prolonged exposure to poor IAQ.

The rise in biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress further emphasises the health risks posed by sustained exposure to indoor air pollutants. This illustrates the critical need for effective interventions to address IAQ issues and protect the health of individuals exposed to these environmental hazards.

In the twelve-month health assessment, the implementation of air filters over six months after the six-month health assessment stage led to noticeable improvements in IAQ, particularly in apartments where medium and high-efficiency filters were used.

Although residents had experienced prolonged exposure to indoor air pollutants, the introduction of filtration systems contributed to a reduction in pollutant concentrations and a subsequent stabilisation of health conditions. The positive effects of air filters were more pronounced with increasing filter efficiency.

Residents in apartments where medium and high-efficiency filters were installed reported fewer respiratory symptoms compared to the baseline assessment. The average Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) showed slight improvement or remained stable at 3.43 litres and 3.5 litres for medium and high-efficiency filters, respectively.

The Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) was at approximately 4.57 litres and 4.6 litres for medium and high-efficiency filters, respectively. This stabilisation in lung function suggests that these filters effectively reduced exposure to harmful particulates, including PM_0.1, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀, which were significantly lower than in flats where low-efficiency filters were used and measurements were taken during the first 6 months when filters were not used.

In flats where low-efficiency filters were used, improvements in indoor air quality (IAQ) were less pronounced. However, there was still a slight reduction in particulate matter and other pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide (SO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NO_x). Residents in these flats continued to experience some respiratory symptoms, but the prevalence did not increase significantly from the six-month assessment.

The average Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) in these flats showed a modest improvement to 3.39 litres, while the Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) was approximately 4.52 litres, indicating that even low-efficiency filters provided some degree of protection, though they were less effective compared to higher-efficiency options.

Crucially, there was no significant increase in the prevalence of chronic respiratory conditions such as bronchitis, and overall health among participants showed signs of stabilisation rather than further deterioration. Cardiovascular symptoms, which had been a concern at the six-month mark, did not worsen appreciably, and only a small percentage of participants exhibited early markers of atherosclerosis.

Biomarker analysis revealed variations in C-reactive protein (CRP) levels based on the type of air filters used over the next six months. The introduction of low-efficiency filters led to a modest decrease in CRP levels, which dropped to 1.4 mg/L, suggesting some reduction in inflammation compared to the no-filter scenario of 1.5 mg/L but still higher than baseline levels of 1.3 mg/L.

Medium-efficiency filters resulted in CRP levels rising to 1.2 mg/L, reflecting a more substantial reduction in inflammation than the low-efficiency filters. High-efficiency filters achieved the most significant improvement, with CRP levels of 1.0 mg/L, generally considered to be within the normal or low range for systemic inflammation.

At the twelve-month assessment, following an additional six months of exposure with varying air filter efficiencies, the levels of 8-isoprostane, a marker of oxidative stress, showed a modest increase compared to the six-month mark, indicating ongoing oxidative damage due to prolonged exposure to pollutants. The introduction of air filters contributed to varying degrees of improvement in oxidative stress, depending on the filter efficiency.

For residents using high-efficiency filters, 8-isoprostane levels were reduced by approximately 20% compared to baseline values, indicating the most effective mitigation of oxidative stress among the filter types. Medium-efficiency filters resulted in a reduction of 15% in 8-isoprostane levels compared to baseline, reflecting moderate improvement. Residents using low-efficiency filters experienced a 10% reduction in 8-isoprostane levels compared to baseline, indicating the least effectiveness in reducing oxidative stress.

Regarding lead concentrations in the blood, high-efficiency filters led to a reduction of about 30% compared to baseline, representing the most significant decrease in exposure. Medium-efficiency filters resulted in a 20% reduction in blood lead levels, while low-efficiency filters achieved only a 10% reduction.

Despite these improvements, elevated lead concentrations remained detectable, suggesting persistent exposure to lead oxide particulates and vapour. This ongoing exposure, although reduced by higher-efficiency filters, continued to contribute to potential respiratory and cardiovascular health issues.

In conclusion, the twelve-month assessment demonstrated that air filtration systems had a positive impact on IAQ and health outcomes. Although the benefits varied with filter efficiency, the overall trend suggested that air filtration, especially with higher-efficiency filters, could help stabilise and potentially improve health conditions for individuals exposed to indoor air pollutants over the long term. The benefit of using filters increases with a decrease in floor level because of the reducing indoor-to-outdoor (I/O) ratios and the impact of outdoor air on indoor air.

Statistical analysis revealed significant correlations between exposure to specific air pollutants and adverse health outcomes. Higher concentrations of particulate matter (PM), including PM_0.1, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀, were strongly associated with reduced lung function.

The negative correlation between particulate matter exposure and Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) was significant (r = -0.65, p < 0.01), indicating that elevated PM levels were associated with decreased lung function. This decline in lung function was exacerbated by the presence of lead vapour and lead oxide particulates, which were found to be significantly associated with increased respiratory and cardiovascular issues.

Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) exposure was linked to increased blood pressure and early signs of atherosclerosis, showing a positive correlation with Carotid Intima-Media Thickness (CIMT) (r = 0.55, p < 0.05). This was particularly evident among those on lower floors, where the higher pollution levels likely contributed to these effects. Formaldehyde exposure was associated with respiratory irritation symptoms, such as eye and throat discomfort, with a correlation coefficient of (r = 0.48, p < 0.05).

Formaldehyde concentrations were notably higher on lower and middle floors. Elevated levels of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) were correlated with increased cardiovascular symptoms, while lead exposure, particularly from lead vapour and lead oxide particulates, was linked to higher blood pressure and cognitive effects.

Qualitative data supported these findings, with residents, especially those on lower floors, expressing concerns about poor IAQ as a major health risk. Approximately 70% of participants reported worsening symptoms due to poor IAQ, which led them to adopt various coping strategies such as keeping windows closed during peak traffic hours and using air purifiers.

Despite these measures, the effectiveness varied, and some residents considered relocating to higher floors or less polluted areas as a better long-term solution. This feedback highlighted the growing awareness and concern among residents regarding the health impacts of indoor air pollution, including the effects of lead vapour and lead oxide particulates, which were significant contributors to adverse health outcomes.

5………………………………………………….

After successfully completing her PhD, Adanma’s research gained significant recognition in both academic and public health circles. Her work provided groundbreaking insights into the pollutants emitted from vehicles using poorly refined fuel and their impact on IAQ in residential settings. Her findings became a crucial resource for understanding the specific pollutants contributing to indoor air pollution, particularly in environments where people spent most of their time, such as homes and schools.

Her research on the short-term and long-term health effects of exposure to air pollutants from vehicular emissions, especially in countries where the use of poorly refined fuel in vehicles was still prevalent, shed light on the severe health risks faced by residents, including respiratory issues, cardiovascular diseases, and other chronic conditions. This aspect of her work was particularly impactful as it drew attention to the urgent need for policy changes and public health interventions in Bayunga and other countries facing similar issues.

Adanma’s investigation into ventilation rates and air filter efficiency also led to practical recommendations for improving IAQ, especially in naturally ventilated buildings. Her work demonstrated how optimising these factors could significantly reduce indoor pollutant concentrations, thereby safeguarding residents’ health. These findings were not only published in leading academic journals but also influenced national guidelines on indoor air quality and building regulations.

After her PhD studies, Adanma continued her research work at Harleyvard School of Public Health as a post-doctoral fellow. Due to her excellent performance, she was recruited to become Assistant Professor of Healthy Buildings for Public Health at Harleyvard University.

This was the proudest moment for Adanma’s parents and brothers. For context, Harleyvard University was a dream university for everyone in the world, and to be a professor at the same university was something beyond the dreams of Adanma, her parents, and brothers, especially considering their background and life story. Adanma, who was married at this time to a Professor of Chemistry at MIT, shared this proud moment with her husband and son.

She continued her research at Harleyvard School of Public Health and expanded her work to include collaborations with international organisations focused on environmental health. She shared her cutting-edge research efforts that began during her PhD study with many governmental authorities and funding agencies. Examples of her presentations and the interactions she had are given below.

[Dr Adanma Edet]: The high prevalence of respiratory, cardiovascular, ENT (ear, nose, and throat) and skin irritations, neurological effects, kidney damage, and cancer in our country prompted us to explore the possible contributions of indoor air exposure to these health problems in residential environments, where people spend about 70% of their time each day.

On the X-axis and Y-axis are the outdoor and indoor concentrations, respectively. We found that indoor concentrations of the air pollutants of interest–sulphur dioxide (SO₂), PM_0.1, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), lead oxide particulates, lead vapour, and formaldehyde (CH₂O)–increase with rising outdoor concentrations of these air pollutants. The indoor-to-outdoor ratio (I/O) for all air pollutants was considerably less than 1, indicating that the major source of the indoor air pollutants in our study is outdoors.

[An audience member]: Dr Adanma, you have demonstrated that increased vehicular traffic raises outdoor concentrations of measured air pollutants, which in turn elevates indoor concentrations. For example, lower outdoor air pollutant concentrations during weekends, nights, and pre-morning traffic hours corresponded with lower indoor concentrations.

This correlation was particularly evident during the pandemic when people were forced to stay indoors for two months. What remains unclear to me is how your findings relate to the use of poorly refined fuel (petrol or diesel) in vehicles. Could you clarify this, please?

[Dr Adanma Edet]: I will get to that in a moment. We used an AI system for real-time emission profiling that comprises smart sensors to measure vehicle emissions. These sensors wirelessly transmit data to a central AI unit, which generates dynamic emission profiles for each vehicle and compares them against a database of unique emission profiles linked to various fuel types and their impurities, allowing us to determine the fuel type and impurities present.

The measured emissions from vehicles result from the combustion of fuel, which includes the oxidation of both the fuel itself and any impurities present in it. These impurities include sulphur compounds, reactive hydrocarbons, lead, nitrogen-containing compounds, and oxygenates (e.g., methanol, ethanol, etc.). Particulate matter (PM) and CO are formed from incomplete combustion. Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons leads to CH₂O. … In essence, our study suggests that the prevalence of poorly refined fuel in vehicles in our country is jeopardising public health by degrading through the degradation of IAQ.

Adanma’s career as a professor was marked by a deep commitment to mentoring the next generation of researchers and public health advocates. She established a research lab that focused on sustainable solutions for IAQ, particularly in developing countries where poorly refined fuel was still a pervasive issue.

Adanma also became a prominent advocate for cleaner energy and environmental justice, using her platform to push for policy changes that would address the root causes of air pollution in her homeland and beyond. She frequently travelled between her university, Harleyvard University, in Marfagal, and Bayunga, where she worked closely with local communities, government agencies, and NGOs to implement the findings of her research.

She was instrumental in the development of new, community-led initiatives aimed at reducing reliance on poorly refined fuel and improving outdoor and indoor air quality. Her work inspired many in her native country and other parts of the world, earning her numerous awards and recognition for her contributions to public health and environmental sustainability.

A major impact of Adanma’s research was the prohibition and criminalisation of selling poorly refined oil and using it in vehicles or any combustion machine in Bayunga by the government of Bayunga. This policy was informed by Adanma’s research, conducted in collaboration with local researchers in Bayunga and government agencies over the years. Years later, Adanma rose through the ranks in a very competitive environment to become a Full Professor of Healthy Buildings for Public Health at Harleyvard University.

In her personal life, Adanma and her husband found joy in the simple moments–family dinners filled with laughter, watching their son excel in his studies, and spending time in her garden, where she grew a variety of plants, some native to Bayunga, which reminded her of home.

Adanma’s brothers, once her protectors during and after their perilous journey to safety, had become successful businessmen in Marfagal, building enterprises that not only secured their futures but also contributed significantly to the local economy. They were pillars of strength and support for Adanma, their bond as siblings growing even stronger through the years.

Despite their success, her brothers never forgot the hardships they endured as refugees. They were active in philanthropy, particularly in initiatives aimed at helping displaced families and supporting education for underprivileged children, much like they had once been. The three siblings shared a deep connection rooted in their shared history, and they often reminisced about their early years in Bayunga, their journey to Marfagal, and the determination that had carried them through.

Adanma’s parents, who had also made the harrowing escape from Bayunga together with them, lived to see their children flourish in Marfagal. Adanma’s parents had been deeply proud of their children’s achievements, particularly Adanma’s rise to prominence in the academic world. They had been well taken care of by their children, living comfortably in a home that was always filled with the warmth and love of family, that included the grandchildren.

Adanma’s father and mother died at the ages of 84 and 87 years old. They were of the same age, and Adanma’s mother died three years after her husband passed away. Adanma’s parents’ passing was a profound loss for Adanma and her brothers, but they found solace in the knowledge that they had lived long enough to see the fruits of their sacrifices. The values they instilled in them–resilience, compassion, and a commitment to helping others–remained the guiding principles of her and her brothers’ lives.

Adanma and her husband made it a tradition to return to Bayunga every year with their son, where they engaged in community service and reconnected with their roots. Her brothers and their families often joined them, and these trips became a time for the entire family to reflect on their journey and give back to the country that had shaped them. They visited the city where they were born, contributed to local development projects, and ensured that their family legacy was one of generosity and care for others.

In the years that followed, Adanma continued to push the boundaries of research, influence global policies, and inspire the next generation. Adanma’s journey was a shining example of how one person’s passion and perseverance could indeed change the world for the better. And as she looked out at the future, Adanma knew that the best was yet to come. The End!